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REVELATION 15-16 (Partial Preterist/Idealist)

PARAGRAPH DIVISIONS OF MODERN TRANSLATIONS

UBS4 NKJV NRSV TEV NJB
The Angels with the Last Plagues Prelude to the Bowl Judgments The Seven Bowls of the Wrath of God The Angels with the Last Plagues The Hymn of Moses and the Lamb
15:1 15:1-16:1 15:1 15:1 15:1-4
    (3b-4)
15:2-4
    (3b-4)
    (3b-4)		 15:2-4
    (3b-4)		 15:2-4
    (3b-4)		 The Seven Bowls of Plagues
15:5-8 15:5-16:1 15:5-8 15:5-8
The Bowls of God's Wrath The Bowls of God's Anger
16:1 First Bowl: Malignant Sores 16:1 16:1
16:2 16:2 16:2 16:2 16:2
Second Bowl: The Sea Turns to Blood
16:3 16:3 16:3 16:3 16:3
Third Bowl: The Waters Turn to Blood
16:4-7
    (5-7)		 16:4-7
    (5-6)		 16:4-7
    (5-7)		 16:4-7 16:4-7
Fourth Bowl: Men are Scorched
16:8-9 16:8-9 16:8-9 16:8-9 16:8-9
Fifth Bowl: Darkness and Pain
16:10-11 16:10-11 16:10-11 16:10-11 16:10-11
Sixth Bowl: Euphrates Dries Up
16:12-16 16:12-16 16:12-16 16:12-14 16:12-16
Seventh Bowl: The Earth Utterly Shaken 16:15
16:16
16:17-21 16:17-21 16:17-21 16:17-21 16:17-21

READING CYCLE THREE (see "Bible Interpretation Seminar")

FOLLOWING THE ORIGINAL AUTHOR'S INTENT AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

Read the chapter in one sitting. Identify the subjects (reading cycle #3). Compare your subject divisions with the five translations above. Paragraphing is not inspired, but it is the key to following the original author's intent, which is the heart of interpretation. Every paragraph has one and only one subject.

  1. First paragraph
  2. Second paragraph
  3. Third paragraph, etc.

CONTEXTUAL INSIGHTS TO REVELATION 15:1-16:21

  1. The seven bowls which are introduced in Rev. 15 and described in Rev. 16 are the third in a set of three cycles of divine plagues sent for the purpose of calling unbelievers to repentance and redemption (cf. Rev. 9:20-21; 14:6-7; 16:9,11). Each cycle gets progressively more severe: 1/4, 1/3, and then total destruction (i.e. the bowl judgments).
     This is possibly based on
    1. "the cursing and blessing" sections of Lev. 26 and Deut. 27-28
    2. the Egyptian plagues (cf. Exodus 8-11)

  2. There is a literary relationship between these cycles. The seventh seal is the seven trumpets. The first four trumpets are also directly parallel to the first four bowls.

  3. The seventh bowl is the fall of Babylon, which will be expanded in Revelation 17-19.

  4. Chapters 15 and 16 draw their imagery from the Exodus experience of Israel (as did Rev. 12-14). This end-time deliverance from evil is seen as the ultimate Exodus (i.e. spiritual deliverance).

  5. The beasts and the whore of Babylon are defeated at Armageddon (Rev. 16:12-16), while Satan is defeated along with Gog and Magog at the very end (cf. Rev. 20:7-10). The temporal judgment coming of Christ in Rev. 19 is an extension and fulfillment of the seventh seal and the seventh trumpet and the seventh bowl judgments. This is God's answer to the martyrs' question of Rev. 6:9-11. Apostate Judaism will be totally destroyed and the old covenant of Moses will be replaced with the New Covenant of the Lamb.

  6. The difficulties in interpreting these battles are:
    1. the type of literature in which they are expressed, apocalyptic/prophetic
    2. they are dealt with in successive stages, cycles, or dramatic acts
    3. there is fluidity between the groups and symbols
    4. there is difficulty separating first century fulfillment (temporal judgment) from end-time fulfillment (eschatological judgment)

  7. For a full list of the series of angels in the literary units of chapters 6-7; 8-11; 12-14; 15-16; 17-19, see Rev. 16:2.
     It is difficult to identify the speakers and actors. Some see one of the Divine Persons; others see angels. I think most of them are angels.

WORD AND PHRASE STUDY

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 15:1-3a
 1Then I saw another sign in heaven, great and marvelous, seven angels who had seven plagues, which are the last, because in them the wrath of God is finished. 2And I saw something like a sea of glass mixed with fire, and those who had been victorious over the beast and his image and the number of his name, standing on the sea of glass, holding harps of God. 3aAnd they sang the song of Moses, the bond-servant of God, and the song of the Lamb, saying,

15:1 "I saw another sign in heaven" This is the third in a series of signs John saw in heaven. John has been translated to heaven several times. Some visions are earthly and some heavenly.

Special Topic: Sign

Special Topic: Heaven

Special Topic: The Heavens and the Third Heaven

▣ "great and marvelous" This phrase occurs only here and points toward the OT allusion in Rev. 15:3, which may come from one of several places (i.e. Deut. 32:3-4; Ps. 111:2; 139:14; or Hosea 14:9).

Verses 3-4 make up one long composite OT allusion from several possible places.

▣ "seven angels" These parallel the angels of the seals and trumpets.

Special Topic: Symbolic Numbers in Scripture, #4

Special Topic: Angels in the Bible

▣ "which are the last" This is the Greek word eschatas, from which we get the English word eschaton (last things). It is paralleled to "is finished."

Special Topic: End or Full (telos)

▣ "the wrath of God" This is the Greek term thumos. See full note at Rev. 7:14.

Special Topic: Tribulation

▣ "is finished" This is an AORIST PASSIVE INDICATIVE of teleō to finish or fulfill. The coming wrath of God on apostate Judaism (cf. Rev. 1:7) is viewed as already fulfilled, PROPHETIC AORIST. The bowls are a complete and final judgment on incalcitrant Jewish unbelief! There is no more hope of repentance and faith, only judgment and isolation for apostate Judaism.

It is theologically possible that the sequence of the seals, trumpets, and bowls was a way of showing God's judicial patience with covenant Israel, but in the end, His total judgment, removal, and isolation of evil is justified! Judgment, isolation, and removal are the only options left.

Special Topic: Eternal Punishment

15:2 "I saw something like a sea of glass" This is first mentioned in Rev. 4:6 as an element of YHWH's throne. Because of its use in Rev. 21:1, where it is removed, it seems to be imagery for God's holiness, which kept sinful mankind from approaching Him (i.e. possibly imagery for the waters of heaven). One day this barrier will be removed.

The OT allusion is to either Exod. 24:10 or Ezek. 1:22; 10:1. See full note at Rev. 4:6.

▣ "mixed with fire" This is a new element not found in Rev. 4:6. There have been numerous theories.

  1. it is the reflected setting sun on God's covenant relationship with Israel (A.D. 70).
  2. it represents fire which stands for God's judgment
  3. it is the blood of the early martyrs
  4. it is an allusion to the victory at the Red Sea and the Song of Moses since the OT background of chapters 15 and 16 is the plagues of the Exodus (cf. Exodus 7-12; 15)

The "Song of Moses," recorded in Exodus 15, is mentioned in v. 3a.

SPECIAL TOPIC: Fire

NASB, REB, Peshitta  "those who had been victorious"
NKJV  "those who have the victory"
NRSV  "those who had conquered"
TEV  "those who had won the victory"
NJB  "those who had fought against"

At first this seems to refer to the martyrs, but Rev. 12:11 shows that it must also apply to those who have experienced natural deaths during the period from Jesus' death to the fall of Jerusalem and/or the death of Nero. These believers had not worshiped the beast (i.e. Nero, cf. Rev. 20:4).

The victorious believers/saints have personally experienced the great tribulation of both

  1. Jewish opposition and persecution
  2. Roman (i.e. emperor cult) persecution

Their faith and witness have clearly shown that God is in control and can be trusted, even in terrible times.

The victory was achieved through Christ's substitutionary atonement (cf. Isaiah 53; Mark 10:45; 2 Cor. 5:2; Titus 2:14)

  1. Jesus binds and pillages Satan ‒ Matt. 12:22-37; Luke 11:14-26
  2. the ruler of this world is cast out ‒ John 12:31
  3. the ruler of the world has been judged ‒ John 16:11
  4. Jesus has overcome the world ‒ John 16:33
  5. Jesus defeats death ‒ 1 Cor. 15:54-57
  6. fallen mankind is forgiven and restored by the sacrificial death of Jesus ‒ Heb. 9:12,14; 13:12; 1 John 1:7; Rev. 1:5; 7:14; 12:11
  7. the Son of God appeared for the purpose that He might destroy the works of the devil ‒ 1 John 3:8
  8. Jesus overcame both Jewish opposition and Roman opposition ‒ Rev. 17:14

Believers have victory through the person and work of Jesus, God's Messiah, Son, and sacrifice.

  1. 1 John 2:13-14
  2. 1 John 4:4
  3. 1 John 5:4,5
NASB, REB  "from the beast and from his image and from the number
  of his name"
NKJV  "over the beast, over his image and over his mark"
NRSV  "the beast and its image and the number of its name"
TEV  "over the beast and its image and over the ones whose name
  is represented by a number"
NJB  "the beast and man, and against his statue and the number
  which is his name"
Peshitta  "over the wild beast and over his image and over the number
  of his name"

The beast is first mentioned in Rev. 11:7. From chapter 13 it is obvious that there are two wild beasts; one is the embodiment of Satan (i.e. a parody of Christ) and the other is his false prophet (i.e. a parody of the Spirit). From Rev. 13:18 we know that his number is 666, which is both the number of a person (i.e. Nero, Preterists) and the fallenness and inadequacy of human society (i.e. government) apart from God (Idealists).

Special Topic: Government

▣"standing on the sea of glass" Some translations have

  1. "on" (NASB, NKJV)
  2. "beside" (NRSV)
  3. "by" (TEV, NJB)
  4. The Greek PREPOSITION'S basic meaning is "upon."

This imagery speaks of faithful, believing overcomers being close to God. The "sea" in Revelation stands for a separation between a holy God and sinful creation. This sea is completely removed in Rev. 21:1 when full fellowship is restored (i.e. the fellowship of the Garden of Eden is restored).

For interpretive options on the meaning of "the sea of glass" see note at Rev. 4:6.

▣ "holding harps of God" Angels are described as having harps in Rev. 5:8 and 14:2. In this context it refers to believers who are synonymous with the 144,000 of chapter 14. As the angels worshiped with music before the God in heaven, now too, the victorious believers worship with the song of the redeemed.

15:3 "And they sang the song of Moses. . .and the song of the Lamb" This shows the unity of the Old Covenant and the New Covenant in this song of redemption. The song of Moses is an allusion to Exod. 15:1-19, where Moses thanks God for the defeat of Pharaoh at the Red Sea.

However, it is possible that John had another song of Moses in Deuteronomy 32 in mind because the first phrase of this text may be an allusion to Deut. 32:3-4. This was a warning against idolatry.

The song of the Lamb has previously been noted in Rev. 5:9 and 14:3. Notice that it is a song of corporate, not individual, salvation (cf. Gen. 3:15).

Special Topic: Biblical Faith Is Corporate

▣ "the bond-servant of God" This is an honorific title for OT characters like Moses, Joshua, and David. It may be the origin of Paul's "servant of Christ."

Special Topic: My Servant

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 15:3b-4
 3b"Great and marvelous are Your works,
  O Lord God, the Almighty;
  Righteous and true are Your ways,
  King of the nations!
 4"Who will not fear, O Lord, and glorify Your name?
  For You alone are holy;
  For all the nations will come and worship before You,
  For Your righteous acts have been revealed."

15:3b-4 NASB usually puts OT quotes in small capital letters, but Revelation never directly quotes either the MT, LXX, or Targums. Therefore, this is simply NASB's way to denote a "close" quote in OT poetic form.

▣ "Great and marvelous are Your works" Notice the poetic form of the NASB. This is a composite allusion to Ps. 40:5; 92:5; 111:2; 139:14 and Hosea 14:9. There are hundreds of allusions to OT texts in Revelation, but no direct quotes. Often, it is difficult to know which text is being alluded to.

▣ "O Lord God, the Almighty" This is an allusion to the three most used common OT titles for YHWH's Deity (cf. Rev. 1:8; 4:8; 11:7; 16:7).

  1. "Lord" refers to YHWH, the Savior, Redeemer, Covenant making God (first used in Gen. 2:4).
  2. "God" refers to Elohim, the Creator, Provider and Sustainer of all life on earth (first used in Gen. 1:1).
  3. The "Almighty" refers to El Shaddai, the Patriarchal name for the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (cf. Exod. 6:3). See full note at Rev. 1:8.

Special Topic: Names for Deity, C. and D.

Special Topic: Shaddai and El Shaddai

▣ "Righteous and true are Your ways" In the midst of the suffering of the saints, this emphasis is tremendously important (cf. Rev. 16:7). This may be an allusion to Deut. 32:4; Ps. 111:7-8; or Hosea 14:9.

Special Topic: Righteousness

Special Topic: Truth/True

NASB, NRSV, TEV, NJB  "Thou King of the nations"
NKJV  "O King of the saints"
REB, Peshitta  "O King of the ages"

There are three different translations of this verse available in modern English.

  1. "King of the ages" (ASV, NIV, REB) which is found in the ancient Greek MSS P47, אi*,2, and C (cf. 1 Tim. 1:17; I Enoch 9:4) ‒ aiōnōn
  2. "King of the nations" (NRSV, TEV, NJB) which is found in MSS אa, A, P, and most minuscules ‒ ethnōn (cf. Jer. 10:7)
  3. "King of the saints" (NKJV) MSS 296, 2049 ‒ agiōn (Metzger, Textual Commentary, p. 753) which comes from a misunderstanding of a late Latin text

Option #2 is probably the original. UBS4 gives it a "B" rating (almost certain).

Special Topic: Textual Criticism

15:4 "Who will not fear, O Lord, and glorify Your name" This question is a strong DOUBLE NEGATIVE with the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. YHWH is the transcendent Holy One of creation (cf. Jer. 10:7-10). Yet He offers salvation to any and all who will fear Him and glorify His name (cf. Rev. 14:7). This OT phrasing must be expanded to include faith in YHWH's Son, Messiah, Savior (i.e. 1 John 5:19-20)

Special Topic: "The Name" of YHWH (OT)

▣ ""For You alone are holy" This title is used of YHWH in Rev. 16:5 and of Jesus in Acts 2:27; 13:35.

Special Topic: Holy

Special Topic: The Holy One

▣ "For all the nations will come and worship before You" In OT prophecy all the nations will one day flow into Jerusalem (cf. 1 Kgs. 8:41-43,60; Ps. 22:27; 66:4; 86:9; Isa. 2:2-4; 19:19-24; 27:13; 45:22-23; 56:7; 66:19-24; Micah 4:2; Mal. 1:11). John is using OT prophecy and imagery to describe a universal salvation (cf. Phil. 2:10-11). Jerusalem of the OT has become the heavenly New Jerusalem of believing Jews and Gentiles (i.e. Rev. 21-22).

Special Topic: Worship

Special Topic: YHWH's Eternal Redemptive Plan

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 15:5-8
 5After these things I looked, and the temple of the tabernacle of testimony in heaven was opened, 6and the seven angels who had the seven plagues came out of the temple, clothed in linen, clean and bright, and girded around their chests with golden sashes. 7Then one of the four living creatures gave to the seven angels seven golden bowls full of the wrath of God, who lives forever and ever. 8 And the temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God and from His power; and no one was able to enter the temple until the seven plagues of the seven angels were finished.

15:5 "the temple of the tabernacle of testimony in heaven was opened" God reveals Himself

  1. in Rev. 4:1 a door in heaven was opened for John
  2. in Rev. 11:19 the Ark of the Covenant appeared in the heavenly temple for believers to see
  3. now the entire heavenly tabernacle appears
    1. an earthly copy, cf. Exod. 25:9,40; 38:21; Num. 10:11; 17:7
    2. the heavenly one, cf. Acts 7:44; Heb. 8:5; 9:23

This OT allusion is developed in Heb. 8:5 and 9:23. This literary unit uses the Exodus and the Wilderness Wanderings Period as an OT backdrop. This symbolizes the second and ultimate exodus from bondage (bondage to sin).

▣ "the tabernacle of testimony" This refers to the visibility of the Ark of the Covenant in the Holy of Holies that contained YHWH's tablets given to Moses on Mt. Sinai (Exod. 19-20; Deut. 5). The one true, holy God has chosen to reveal Himself. Fallen humans cannot discover truth!

Special Topic: Ways of Revelation

Special Topic: Inspiration

Special Topic: Ark of the Covenant

Special Topic: Tabernacle of the Wilderness

15:6 "clothed in linen, clean and bright" These seven angelic beings come from the very innermost part of heaven's temple, which shows their authority because they come from the very presence of God. In rabbinical Judaism there are seven powerful angels surrounding the throne of God, called "the angels of the presence."

These angels' dress is described as

  1. "linen" (linon [MS P] or linoun [MS P47]) which was worn by priests in Exod. 28:4 (see Special Topic: Linen; UBS4, "B" rating)
  2. the ASV translates this as "precious stone" (lithon) which follows the Greek uncial manuscripts A and C, and may be an allusion to Ezek. 28:13 as an angelic clothing in the Garden of Eden

▣ "and girded around their chests with golden sashes" This is very similar to the angel found in Dan. 10:5 or to Christ Himself in Rev. 1:18. These are obviously very powerful angels representing God or Christ.

15:7 "seven golden bowls full of the wrath of God" These shallow golden bowls are mentioned in Rev. 5:8, where they contain the prayers of the saints. There is a connection throughout Revelation to the prayers of His persecuted children and the wrath of God on unbelievers (see note at Rev. 7:14).

Special Topic: Intercessory Prayer

▣ "who lives forever and ever" This is an oath based on the root meaning of the term YHWH (cf. Exod. 3:14). YHWH is the ever living, only living One; all else derives life from Him.

Special Topic: Names For Deity, D.

Special Topic: Forever (Greek idiom)

Special Topic: Forever ('olam)

15:8 "And the temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God" This was a common OT description of the presence of God (cf. Exod. 19:18; 40:34; 1 Kgs. 8:10-11; 2 Chr. 5:13-14; Isa. 6:4). It is an allusion to the Shekinah cloud of glory which represented God's presence to Israel during the Exodus and Wilderness Wandering Period. But because of the contextual connection with the bowls, it may refer to the abundance of incense representing the prayers of God's children for justice.

Special Topic: Shekinah

Special Topic: Glory (kabod, OT)

▣ "no one was able to enter the temple until the seven plagues of the seven angels were finished" This possibly means that there was no stopping God's wrath once it had begun. This wrath is difficult to correlate theologically with Rev. 16:9 and 11, which implies that redemption is still the goal, even in the bowls it is still the hope and intent that fallen mankind, made in God's image, will repent and return to Him!

Special Topic: YHWH's Eternal Redemptive Plan

REVELATION 16

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:1
 1Then I heard a loud voice from the temple, saying to the seven angels, "Go and pour out on the earth the seven bowls of the wrath of God."

16:1 "Then I heard a loud voice from the temple, saying to the seven angels" Revelation 15:8 shows that this must be the voice of God Himself from the holy place (naos). This last group of angels had ultimate authority to destroy God's earth. In the OT the death angel and the angel of destruction are God's servants, not Satan's.

Special Topic: Death Angel

Special Topic: Angels in the Bible

▣ "Go and pour out on the earth the seven bowls of the wrath of God" These are two PRESENT ACTIVE IMPERATIVES. This is an OT symbol for the judgment of God on

  1. unbelieving Jews (cf. Matt. 23-25)
  2. unbelieving nations (cf. Ps. 79:6; Jer 10:25; Ezek. 22:31; Zeph. 3:8)

This imagery is used often for God's wrath (thumos) on unbelievers (see note at Rev. 7:14, cf. Rev. 16:1,2,3,4,8,10,12,17) because of

  1. their blasphemy (cf. Rev. 16:9)
  2. their persecution of believers (cf. Rev. 16:6)
  3. their stubborn refusal to repent (cf. Rev. 9:20-21; 16:9-12)
  4. ultimately of their rejection and murder of God's Son (cf. Rev. 1:7)

For "the earth" (gē) see full note at Rev. 1:7.

For "wrath of God" (thumos) see full note at Rev. 7:14.

Special Topic: World (several terms), II. D.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:2
 2So the first angel went and poured out his bowl on the earth; and it became a loathsome and malignant sore on the people who had the mark of the beast and who worshiped his image.

16:2 This first bowl is very much like one of the Egyptian plagues (cf. Exod. 9:10-11). Some see this as related to Deut. 28:27,35, which is in the cursing and blessing section of Moses' covenant renewal (also note Lev. 26). It is to be noted that, like the Egyptian plagues, these plagues affected only a certain group, unbelievers.

▣ "the first angel" There is a series of angels connected to God's activity.

  1. seals ‒ Revelation 6-7
    1. one of the four living creatures saying. . . ‒ 6:1
    2. the second living creature ‒ 6:3
    3. the third living creature ‒ 6:5
    4. the fourth living creature ‒ 6:7
    5. four angels holding back four winds ‒ 7:1
    6. another angel ascending from the rising sun and having the seal of God ‒ 7:2
  2. trumpets ‒ Revelation 8-11
    1. seven angels standing before God were given seven trumpets ‒ 8:2,6
    2. another angel stood by the altar ‒ 8:3-5
    3. the first ‒ 8:7
    4. the second ‒ 8:8
    5. the third ‒ 8:9
    6. the fourth ‒ 8:12
    7. the fifth ‒ 9:1
    8. the sixth ‒ 9:13
    9. another angel coming down out of heaven ‒ 10:1,9
    10. a voice ‒ 10:8
    11. "they said to me" ‒ 10:11
    12. the seventh angel ‒ 11:15
  3. the woman and the dragon/beast ‒ Revelation 12-14
    1. another angel flying in midheaven ‒ 14:6
    2. anther angel, a second one ‒ 14:8
    3. another angel, a third one ‒ 14:9
    4. another angel came out of the temple ‒ 14:15
    5. another angel came out of the temple ‒ 14:17
    6. another angel with power over fire ‒ 14:18
    7. another angel swung his sickel ‒ 14:19
  4. bowls ‒ Revelation 15-16; 17:1
    1. seven angels with seven plagues ‒ 15:1,6,7 (now bowls); 16:1
    2. first angel ‒ 16:2
    3. second angel ‒ 16:3
    4. third angel ‒ 16:4
    5. the angel of the waters ‒ 16:5
    6. the fourth angel ‒ 16:8
    7. the fifth angel ‒ 16:10
    8. the sixth angel ‒ 16:12
    9. the seventh angel ‒ 16:17
  5. angels connected to the fall of Babylon ‒ Revelation 17-18
    1. one of the angels who had lthe seventh bowl ‒ 17:1,3,7,15
    2. another angel coming down from heaven ‒ 18:1
    3. a strong angel with a stone ‒ 18:21

Angels are common through the book, starting with

  1. Jesus communicates His message through an angel to John ‒ Rev. 1:1
  2. Jesus identifies the focus of His message by addressing it to seven literal, historical churches in Asia Minor ‒ Rev. 1:4,11
  3. these churches have
    1. seven spirits ‒ 1:4; 3:1
    2. seven lampstands ‒ 1:12,20; 2:1
    3. seven stars are the seven angels of the churches ‒ 1:16,20; 2:1; 3:1

Special Topic: The Seven Spirits of God

There are several problems related to "angels."

  1. Often powerful angels are characterized in ways that, at first, appear to refer to God or Jesus.
  2. There are places where heavenly voices seem to come from angels close to God and speak for Him.

▣ "on the people who had the mark of the beast and who worshiped his image" This phrase does not seem to fit the Jews of Jerusalem. It is possible to see this as

  1. imagery for the Jewish leaders and the hostile crowd at Jesus' trial before Pilate (cf. Matt. 27:25; John 19:15)
  2. referring to pagans throughout the known world (oikoumenē, i.e. the Roman Empire, cf. Rev. 13:15-17; 14:9)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:3
 3The second angel poured out his bowl into the sea, and it became blood like that of a dead man; and every living thing in the sea died.

16:3-4 The second and third bowls parallel the second and third trumpets (cf. Rev. 8:8-11) and also reflect the Exodus plagues of Exod. 7:17-21; Ps. 78:44.

If it is possible to link this imagery to first century Palestinian history, then we learn of the terrible slaughter of Jews in Galilee by Vespasian in the early years of the Jewish War with Rome (A.D. 66-70) from Flavius Josephus, Wars of the Jews.

The graphic description records the Sea of Galilee turning red with the blood of so many corpses. This killed most of the aquatic life.

Remember, when you look at the four major approaches to Revelation, the historical fulfillment of some of the details reflect true historical events.

  1. Historicists ‒ see them as related to western history, particularly the Roman Catholic church
  2. Preterists ‒ see them related to
    1. the Jewish War with Rome (A.D. 66-70)
    2. the fall of the Roman Empire
  3. Futurists ‒ see them fulfilled, often in detail, in the future
  4. Idealists ‒ see the whole book as symbolism reflecting the eternal conflict (i.e. Genesis 3 ‒ Revelation 19) between good and evil

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:4-7
 4Then the third angel poured out his bowl into the rivers and the springs of waters; and they became blood. 5And I heard the angel of the waters saying, "Righteous are You, who are and who were, O Holy One, because You judged these things; 6 for they poured out the blood of saints and prophets, and You have given them blood to drink. They deserve it." 7And I heard the altar saying, "Yes, O Lord God, the Almighty, true and righteous are Your judgments."

16:4 Many Preterists see this as referring to the Roman army

  1. polluting the rivers and lakes of Galilee with the blood of the thousands of slaughtered Jews (see Josephus, Wars of the Jews 3.10.9)
  2. poisoning the water sources of Jerusalem

16:5 "the angel of the waters" This may reflect the intertestamental Jewish apocalyptic terminology of I Enoch 66:2. In Revelation there has been

  1. an angel in charge of the wind (Rev. 7:1)
  2. an angel in charge of fire (Rev. 14:8)
  3. so, it is not unusual to see an angel in charge of the water

Again, angelic mediation and activity are common in intertestamental Jewish apocalyptic literature. We must interpret Revelation in light of its own genre, its own day, and not our modern western theological systems of eschatology!

Special Topic: Apocalyptic Literature

▣ "Righteous are You" This is an allusion to Moses' song in Deut. 32 or possibly Ps. 119:137.

Special Topic: Righteousness

▣ "who are and who were" Notice that there is no future element as in Rev. 1:4,8; 4:8, because there is no future time (see full note at Rev. 11:17). The end (i.e. Parousia) is revealed several times in Revelation, not just Revelation 19. Each of the seals, trumpets, and bowls ends with the a temporal judgment coming (see Special Topic: Second Coming, IV.). This is why I think the recapitulation theory for the interpretation of Revelation is best!

My current understanding of the literary structure of the book has become Partial Preterism (i.e. each literary unit covers the time frame from Jesus' death to the end of the Jewish War).

Does this book primarily address

  1. the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (chapters 1-19 or possibly only 1-11)
  2. the fall of Rome in the fifth century (chapters 13-19)
  3. a future world ruler (i.e. at the comsummation Coming)?

▣ "O Holy One" See Special Topic: The Holy One

16:6 This phrasing points directly to Jerusalem, who had killed God's prophets and His faithful followers throughout its history. This could fit Roman persecution but Jerusalem is a better fit (cf. 2 Chr. 36:15-16; Matt. 23:31-39; Luke 13:33-34; Acts 7:52).

▣ "saints" This surely refers to the early church of Palestine.

Special Topic: Saints

▣ "prophets" Jerusalem had killed both OT prophets (i.e. God's speakers) and NT prophets (cf. Matt. 23:27-37; Luke 13:33-35; Rev. 17:6).

16:7 "And I heard the altar saying" The horns of the altar had already spoken in Rev. 9:13. This may refer to

  1. souls of the martyrs that are under the Altar of Sacrifice (cf. Rev. 6:9; 14:18)
  2. the prayers of God's children from the Altar of Incense (cf. Rev. 8:3-5)

It may also be simply a personification for graphic emphasis.

Special Topic: Altar of Sacrifice

Special Topic: Altar of Incense

▣ "Lord God, the Almighty" For these titles for Israel's God, see full notes at Rev. 1:8.

▣ "true and righteous are Your judgments" This may be an allusion to Ps. 19:9; 119:137. This is a helpful reminder in the midst of such terrible persecution toward Christians (cf. Rev. 15:4 and 19:2). God will set all things straight one day!

One of the purposes of Revelation is to show the fairness of God's judgments on

  1. apostate Israel
  2. unbelieving mankind (especially Roman pagan society)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:8-9
 8The fourth angel poured out his bowl upon the sun, and it was given to it to scorch men with fire. 9Men were scorched with fierce heat; and they blasphemed the name of God who has the power over these plagues, and they did not repent so as to give Him glory.

16:8 This fourth bowl is similar to

  1. the sixth seal of Rev. 6:12
  2. very similar to the fourth trumpet of Rev. 8:12

▣ "it was given to it to scorch men with fire" The sun is personified as it is in Ps. 19:1-6. God controls the heavenly bodies (cf. Gen. 1:14-19). They are not gods. They do function as messengers (natural revelation, Ps. 19:1-6) and signs for the seasons, and for worship (cf. Gen. 1:14).

This imagery of solar heat may be a reversal of God's promise of restoration from Isa. 49:10. For desert people shade and water were blessings of life! Often the OT used shade as imagery of God's presence and protection (cf. Exod. 13:21-22; Ps. 91:1-6). "Fiery heat" is mentioned as one of the curses in Deut. 28:22, but this phrase is used in a sense of medical calamities.

Special Topic: Shekinah

Special Topic: Shadow as Metaphor for Protection and Care

Special Topic: Fire

16:9 "they did not repent so as to give Him glory" The purpose of God's wrath is redemptive in the seals and trumpets (cf. Rev. 9:20-21; 14:6-7), and even possibly in the bowls. However, stubborn, rebellious mankind refuses to repent. Yet, in the bowls the hope of repentance has seemingly passed; only judgment remains (i.e. Heb. 10:31)!

Special Topic: Repentance (NT)

Special Topic: Glory (NT)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:10-11
 10Then the fifth angel poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast, and his kingdom became darkened; and they gnawed their tongues because of pain, 11and they blasphemed the God of heaven because of their pains and their sores; and they did not repent of their deeds.

16:10 "the fifth angel poured out his bowl upon the throne of the beast" As Jerusalem was experiencing the judgment of God, so too, Rome. The throne of Satan was given to the beast in Rev. 11:7. His power is described in Rev. 13:2ff. In Preterism this refers to the suicide of Nero and the chaos it caused in the Roman government in A.D. 68-69 (see Tacitus' account in The Histories 3.83).

▣ "his kingdom" Satan mimics God. As God has a kingdom, so Satan has a kingdom. Throughout these remaining chapters the ministry of God in Christ is parodied by the evil trinity. Satan's kingdom, through the beast, is expansive (cf. Rev. 13:14-17).

▣ "became darkened" This is another allusion to the Egyptian plagues (cf. Exod. 10:21-23). God controls the light (cf. Rev. 8:12; 9:2; Gen. 1:5,14-18).

It is surely possible that "darkness" here represents political disruption, as the darkness and death of the firstborn did to Egypt. Rome experienced a period of chaos after the suicide of Nero in A.D. 68.

  1. there were four claimants to the throne in a brief period causing civil war (A.D. 69)
  2. even the conclusion of the Jewish War was halted for a period (A.D. 68-69) as Vespasian's returned to Rome to become Emperor and Titus, his son, finished Israel's destruction

16:11 "they blasphemed the God of heaven" These pagan unbelievers recognized the source and reason for their pain, but would not repent and turn to God or His Christ!

  1. The plagues on Egypt were sent to expose the false gods of Egypt and cause the Egyptians to trust the God of Israel.
  2. The "curses" of Lev. 26 and Deut. 27-28 were sent to restore unbelieving Jews to faith and obedience.
  3. Judgment has a redemptive goal (except for the bowls and Hell)!

The title "the God of heaven" was used earlier in Rev. 11:13 and reflects a Babylonian and Persian title for Deity used often by Daniel (cf. Dan. 2:18,37,44, see my commentary on Daniel at www.freebiblecommentary.org.

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:12-16
 12The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river, the Euphrates; and its water was dried up, so that the way would be prepared for the kings from the east. 13And I saw coming out of the mouth of the dragon and out of the mouth of the beast and out of the mouth of the false prophet, three unclean spirits like frogs; 14for they are spirits of demons, performing signs, which go out to the kings of the whole world, to gather them together for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty. 15("Behold, I am coming like a thief. Blessed is the one who stays awake and keeps his clothes, so that he will not walk about naked and men will not see his shame.") 16And they gathered them together to the place which in Hebrew is called Har-Magedon.

16:12 "the sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river, the Euphrates" This river was mentioned in Rev. 9:13-19 (the sixth angel with trumpet) when the demonic army crossed its borders to torture mankind. The headwaters of the Euphrates were the northern boundary of the Promised Land and the outer limits of the Roman Empire. The possible historic basis for this demonic army is

  1. the Parthian cavalry. These fierce anti-Roman invaders were a terror to the Roman legions.
  2. the Roman 10th Legion from this area joined in the destruction of Jerusalem

▣ "its water was dried up" Quite often in the OT the drying up of the water was seen as an act of God as seen in

  1. the Red Sea (cf. Exod. 14:21)
  2. the Jordan River (Josh. 3:17)
  3. several allusions in prophetic literature (cf. Isa. 11:15-16; 44:27; 51:36; Zech. 10:11); this allusion seems to fit Jer. 51:36, where Cyrus II captured the city of Babylon by diverting the Euphrates and allowing his troops to enter the city under its giant walls in 536 B.C. (see Herodotus' Histories 1.191)

This physical act symbolizes that God is allowing the conflict with Rome to culminate. It is theologically parallel to 2 Thess. 2:6-7, "what/who restrains" (see my exegetical notes online).

Special Topic: Waters

▣ "that the way would be prepared for the kings from the east" There has been much discussion as to how "the kings of the east" in Rev. 16:12 are related to "the kings of the whole world." In Rev. 16:14:

  1. they are the same, as in v. 12
  2. they are antagonists (Nero Redivivus myth and the Parthian army)
  3. the kings of the east refer to the army of God (i.e. Titus, reenforced by thousands of troups from the area of the Euphrates (the 10th Legion), returned to complete the siege of Jerusalem)

16:13 "the dragon, the beast, the false prophet" This is the first time that the second beast (cf. Rev. 13:11) is called "the false prophet," but from now on he will be referred to by this name every time (cf. Rev. 16:13; 19:20; 21:10).

These three refer to a Satanic trinity which will be defeated in two stages: the two beasts in the valley of Megiddo (cf. Rev. 16:12-16) and Satan at the end by Christ (cf. Rev. 20:7-10).

▣ "three unclean spirits like frogs" The term "unclean" is used in the NT gospels to refer to demons. Why they are characterized as frogs has been greatly disputed:

  1. they refer to unclean animals (cf. Lev. 11:10,31)
  2. this is another reference to the Egyptian plagues (cf. Exod. 8:6; Jerusalem called "Egypt" in Rev. 11:8)
  3. the lying spirit in 1 Kgs. 22:21-33, which causes a king to commit to a battle of defeat (note Rev. 19:19)
  4. linking Israel to Egyptian harlotry/idolatry (cf. Ezek. 23:3,8,19,27)
  5. in Zoroastrianism frogs are the symbol of ultimate evil
  6. the three fanatical factions of zealots occupying Jerusalem during the siege

Special Topic: Demons (fallen angels)

16:14 "they are spirits of demons, performing signs" It is very interesting to note that these signs and wonders will lead all unbelievers astray, but not even the least of the children of God (cf. Rev. 13:13; Matt. 24:24; Mark 13:22; 2 Thess. 2:9-11). This last literary unit (the bowls) is a comparison between what will happen to the children of God and what will happen to the inhabitants of Palestine. Christ speaks words of truth, righteousness, and mercy to bring peace to the earth, but the demonic frog spirits (possibly the fanatic false messiahs in the temple in A.D. 69-70) speak lies and gather the nations for war.

If we seek a first century historical reference to this activity of the demonic unleashed on Jerusalem during the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, Josephus records the fanatical actions of different factions with different messianic pretenders. Jerusalem was its own worst enemy in A.D. 70. It was this fanaticism that caused

  1. the war with Rome in the first place
  2. the continuation of the war when defeat was obvious
  3. the Roman soldiers' terrible slaughter and destruction of the city and temple once the fortifications were breached
  4. Obviously the demonic was behind all the terrible acts.

Special Topic: Demons (fallen angels)

▣ "which go out to the kings of the whole world" This may be an allusion to Ps. 2:2, which forms the imagery of these last chapters of Revelation.

The term "world" is oikoumenē and means "the inhabited world" or the Roman Empire.

Special Topic: World (several terms), II. C.

▣ "gather them together for the war of the great day of God" The description of a major battle of judgment appears in Rev. 6:2-8; 11:7-10; 12:17; 16:14; 17:14; 19:19 and 20:8. It is possible these all represent one battle from different perspectives (i.e. parallelism). I think in this context it refers to the temporal divine judgment on apostate Israel by means of the Roman army (i.e. the Jewish War with Rome, A.D. 66-70).

Special Topic: Second Coming, IV.

▣ "the Almighty" See full note at Rev. 1:8.

16:15 This parenthetical verse contains the words of Christ which are interjected to warn the people of God (like Matt. 24:15-22; Mark 13:15-16). This is the third of the seven blessings to believers (cf. Rev. 1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7,14). This verse may function as an interlude between the sixth and seventh bowls.

▣ "I am coming like a thief" This imagery of a sudden, unexpected coming is used in several senses.

  1. Jesus' words in the Olivet Discourse (i.e. Matt. 24:43-44; Luke 12:39-40) describe His sudden but expected coming.
  2. Paul's words related to the consummation coming of the Messiah (cf. 1 Thess. 5:2; also note 4:13-18)
  3. Peter's words related to the consummation coming of the Messiah (cf. 2 Pet. 3:10)
  4. Jesus' words to the church at Sardis to stay alert and faithful (cf. Rev. 3:3)

The phrase "coming with clouds" is used in two senses (see Special Topic: Second Coming, IV.). They can refer to blessing or judgment (of God in Ps. 18:7-15; Isa. 19:1; Joel 2:1-2; Nahum 1:2-6; Zeph. 1:14-15; of Jesus in Matt. 24:30; 26:64). In Revelation it is used

  1. In Rev. 1:7 as a beginning OT allusion of judgment from Dan. 7. It is the theme of the entire prophecy.
  2. This same theme closes the book, Rev. 22:20.
  3. It forms a crucial aspect of His message to the seven churches
    1. negative in judgment ‒ Rev. 2:5,16; 3:3
    2. positive in blessing ‒ Rev. 2:25; 3:11,20
  4. In Rev. 16:15 could be for blessing or judgment
  5. The closing of the prophecy, "coming," is used three times ("come" as invitation twice in 22:17 and again as a prayer in v. 20)
  6. In Rev. 22:12 ‒ like 16:15, could be for blessing or judgment

The time frame is usually "quickly," which implies a first century setting (Preterism).

Special Topic: Soon Return

Special Topic: The Second Coming

Special Topic: The Any Moment Return of Jesus vs. the Not Yet

▣ "Blessed is the one who stays awake and keeps his clothes" This is the third of seven blessings given to faithful believers (cf. Rev. 1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7,14). This almost seems to be a summary of the warning found in Mark 13:33-37; Luke 12:37.

▣ "so that he will not walk about naked and men will not see his shame" This may be a flashback to Rev. 3:18. In the OT nakedness was a symbol of judgment (cf. Ezek. 23:29; Hosea 2:3; Amos 2:16; Mic. 1:8). However, it refers not to the loss of salvation, but to Christians who will be ashamed of their activities and lack of lifestyle faith at Jesus' Coming. Jesus' coming as the Judge and Conqueror, which is exactly how the Jews expected the Messiah to return, is described in Rev. 19:11-16.

Special Topic: Shame

16:16 "and they gathered them together" This is repeated in Rev. 20:8.

NASB  "in Hebrew is called Har-Magedon"
NKJV, NJB, REB  "in Hebrew, Armageddon"
NRSV  "in Hebrew is called Harmagedon"
TEV  "in Hebrew is Armageddon"
Peshitta  "in the Hebrew tongue is called Armageddon"

This word is spelled differently in several Greek manuscripts. There have been several theories to identify this name (which appears nowhere else in Hebrew or Greek literature).

  1. It refers to "the mountain (har) of Megiddo" (NASB, NRSV), a northern city in the tribal allocation of Manasseh, built on a hill
  2. It refers to "the city (ar) of Megiddo" (NKJV, NJB, REB), but the problem is that this is not the exact spelling of that city (this option seems best. The issue is the breathing mark in Greek).
  3. It is a translation of a phrase "the mount of assembly" (NASB) or "the mountain towards the north," found in Isa. 14:13, which refers to the ultimate mountain of Deity which Satan desires.
  4. It refers to the whole Promised Land (cf. "the mountains of Israel" mentioned in Ezek. 34:13; 36:1-8; 38:8,20,21; 39:2,4,17)
  5. the root meaning of "megiddo" might be "to cut" or "to attack," making this a reference to "the destroying mountain" of Jer. 51:25 (i.e. Babylon), a symbol of Jerusalem's or Rome's destruction.

John has chosen a city that was well known and has slightly changed its spelling (see Metzger, Textual Commentary, p. 755). This is similar to his inaccurate listing of the twelve tribes in Rev. 7:5-8 in order to show their symbolic nature. This symbolic interpretation is further seen in the use of the phrase "in Hebrew," which indicates symbolism, as in Rev. 9:11. It is true that the Valley of Jezreel or the Plain of Esdraelon was the site of many OT battles (cf. Jdgs. 5:19-21; 2 Kgs. 9:27; 23:29-30; 2 Chr. 35:22; Zech. 12:11). This northern invasion route of Mesopotamian powers had become a cultural symbol of evil (cf. Isa. 14:31; Jer. 1:13-14; 4:6; 10:22; 46:20-24; 47:2-7; 50:3,9,41; 51:48; Ezek. 38:6,15; 39:2). This is the direction from which the Roman Legions invaded.

From a Preterist's perspective this is a vivid imagery of the fall of Jerusalem, possibly reflecting Isa. 6:9-13; Dan. 9:24-27; Micah 3; Zech. 12. This was exactly what the Olivet Discourse is about! This is just different imagery for the same event.

All, or at least most, of the time markers in both the Olivet Discourse and the book of Revelation denote current, immediate, soon events.

For a good brief discussion of a Preterist's understanding, see

  1. Gary DeMar, Last Days Madness, pp. 315-323
  2. Steve Gregg, Revelation: Four Views: Revised and Updated, pp. 438-449

See full list of Preterist scholars:

  1. John Bray, Matthew 24 Fulfilled
  2. Kenneth Gentry
    1. Before Jerusalem Fell
    2. The Beast of Revelation
    3. The Apocalypse of John: A Preterist Commentary of the Book of Revelation
  3. Four Views on the Book of Revelation, several authors, note pp. 39-92
  4. Steve Gregg
    1. Revelation: Four Views, Revised and Expanded
    2. Why Not Full-Preterism? A Partial-Preterist Response to a Novel Theological Innovation
    3. Many thought provoking YouTube videos on biblical issues and controversies; his website is www.thenarrowpath.com; I highly recommend this brother's Bible study and lectures on contemporary controversies.
  5. Gary DeMar
    1. Last Days Madness: Obsession of the Modern Church
    2. End Time Fiction: A Biblical Consideration of Left Behind Theology
  6. Bruce Gore, YouTube video, "The Apocalypse in Space and Time" (10 lectures with detailed historical and Early Church Father quotes; very detailed and interesting)

NASB (UPDATED) TEXT: REVELATION 16:17-21
 17Then the seventh angel poured out his bowl upon the air, and a loud voice came out of the temple from the throne, saying, "It is done." 18And there were flashes of lightning and sounds and peals of thunder; and there was a great earthquake, such as there had not been since man came to be upon the earth, so great an earthquake was it, and so mighty. 19The great city was split into three parts, and the cities of the nations fell. Babylon the great was remembered before God, to give her the cup of the wine of His fierce wrath. 20And every island fled away, and the mountains were not found. 21And huge hailstones, about one hundred pounds each, came down from heaven upon men; and men blasphemed God because of the plague of the hail, because its plague was extremely severe.

16:17 "Then the seventh angel poured out his bowl upon the air" This could be a reference to Satan's kingdom as found in Eph. 2:2. The air above the earth was considered the realm of evil by the first century world. The battle with evil is finished (cf. Rev. 16:17c-21).

Special Topic: Symbolic Numbers in Scripture, #4

16:18 This meteorological and geological imagery is used several times in Revelation (cf. Rev. 4:5; 8:5; 11:19; 16:18). Westerners are unfamiliar and uncomfortable with hyperbole. There are several mentioned earthquakes in Revelation. This text may refer to Haggai. 2:6-7.

16:19 "The great city" This same difficulty involved in identifying the Great Whore of Babylon is repeated here. The two major options (at least for Preterists) are

  1. Jerusalem ‒ destroyed in A.D. 70 (see full note at Rev. 11:8)
  2. Rome
    1. death of Nero (A.D. 68)
    2. her empires destroyed in A.D. 476 by the invasion of northern barbarians
  3. both, #1 in Rev. 1-12; #2 in Rev. 13-19

▣ "was split into three parts" This possibly is an allusion to

  1. the vision of Ezekiel 5, which describes Jerusalem's utter defeat
  2. the Jewish warring factions inside the city of Jerusalem during the Roman siege (cf. Josephus, Wars 5.1.1,4)

▣ "the cities of the nations fell" This shows the ineffective alliance of fallen human governments against our God and His Christ (cf. Psalm 2). See note at Rev. 10:11.

▣ "Babylon the great was remembered before God" The phrase "God remembered" is often a symbol of God's judgment (cf. Rev. 18:5; 19:15).

▣ "the cup of the wine of His fierce wrath" Drunkenness was OT imagery for God's judgment (cf. Ps. 60:3; 75:8; Isa. 51:17,22; Jer. 25:15-16, 27-28). This particular cup of judgment was discussed earlier in Rev. 14:10.

Jerusalem is "Babylon the great" in this context. See full note at Rev. 11:8.

"Wrath" is the term orgē. See full note at Rev. 7:14.

Special Topic: Wine and Strong Drink

Special Topic: Tribulation

Special Topic: Cup

16:20 "every island fled away" This is similar to the sixth seal (cf. Rev. 6:14).

▣ "the mountains were not found" These were OT symbolic phrases for cataclysmic events (cf. Ps. 97:5; Mic. 1:4; Nah. 1:5).

16:21 "huge hailstones" Hailstones have always been the sign of God's judgment (cf. Josh. 10:11; Isa. 28:2).

  1. This is another possible allusion to the Egyptian plagues (cf. Exod. 9:23-24).
  2. In Ezek. 38:22 hail is used on the enemies of God. The weight of the hailstones has varied.
  3. The Mosaic punishment for adultery was stoning (cf. Lev. 20:10). Apostate Israel was guilty of spiritual adultery with Rome.
  4. Josephus, Wars 5.6.3, describes the Roman catapults as throwing huge stones into Jerusalem during the five month siege in A.D. 70.

▣ "about one hundred pounds each" This is literally "a talent weight." The weight of "talents" in the Ancient Near East has varied from 45 to 138 pounds. Their exact weight is unknown, but these are obviously exaggerated weights to show the damage and death they will cause.

Special Topic: ANE Weights and Volumes

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

This is a study guide commentary, which means that you are responsible for your own interpretation of the Bible. Each of us must walk in the light we have. You, the Bible, and the Holy Spirit are priority in interpretation. You must not relinquish this to a commentator.

These discussion questions are provided to help you think through the major issues of this section of the book. They are meant to be thought-provoking, not definitive.

  1. What does the "sea of glass" symbolize?
  2. Why does God show John a vision of the heavenly tabernacle?
  3. List the similarities between the seals, trumpets, the bowls, and the plagues of Egypt.
  4. How are the kings of the east in Rev. 16:12 related to the kings of the whole earth in Rev. 16:14?
  5. What or where is Armageddon? (Rev. 16:16)
  6. To what does the "great city" refer? (Rev. 16:19)

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